A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers of All Ages and Nations Part 3

Beccaria (Bonesana Cesare), an Italian marquis and writer, b. at Milan, 15 March, 1738. A friend of Voltaire, who praised his treatise on Crimes and Punishments (1769), a work which did much to improve the criminal codes of Europe. Died Milan, 28 Nov. 1794.

Beesly (Edward Spencer), Positivist, b. f.e.c.kenham, Worcestershire, 1831. Educated at Wadham College, Oxford, where he took B.A. in 1854, and M.A. in '57. Appointed Professor of History, University College, London, in 1860. He is one of the translators of Comte's System of Positive Polity, and has published several pamphlets on political and social questions.

Beethoven (Ludwig van), one of the greatest of musical composers, b. Bonn 16 Dec. 1770. His genius early displayed itself, and at the age of five he was set to study the works of Handel and Bach. His many compositions are the glory of music. They include an opera "Fidelio,"

two ma.s.ses, oratorios, symphonies, concertos, overtures and sonatas, and are characterised by penetrating power, rich imagination, intense pa.s.sion, and tenderness. When about the age of forty he became totally deaf, but continued to compose till his death at Vienna, 26 March, 1827. He regarded Goethe with much the same esteem as Wagner showed for Schopenhauer, but he disliked his courtliness. His Republican sentiments are well known, and Sir George Macfarren, in his life in the Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biography, speaks of him as a "Freethinker," and says the remarkable ma.s.s in C. "might scarcely have proceeded from an entirely orthodox thinker." Sir George Grove, in his Dictionary of Music and Musicians, says: "Formal religion he apparently had none," and "the Bible does not appear to have been one of his favorite books." At the end of his arrangement of "Fidelio"

Moscheles had written, "Fine. With G.o.d's help." To this Beethoven added, "O man, help thyself."

Bekker (Balthasar), Dutch Rationalist, b. Metslawier (Friesland) 20 March, 1634. He studied at Gronigen, became a doctor of divinity, and lived at Francker, but was accused of Socinianism, and had to fly to Amsterdam, where he raised another storm by his World Bewitched (1691), a work in which witchcraft and the power of demons are denied. His book, which contains much curious information, raised a host of adversaries, and he was deposed from his place in the Church. It appeared in English in 1695. Died, Amsterdam, 11 June, 1698. Bekker was remarkably ugly, and he is said to have "looked like the devil, though he did not believe in him."

Belinsky (Vissarion Grigorevich), Russian critic, b. Pensa 1811, educated at Pensa and Moscow, adopted the Pantheistic philosophy of Hegel and Sch.e.l.ling. Died St. Petersburg, 28 May, 1848. His works were issued in 12 volumes, 1857-61.

Bell (Thomas Evans), Major in Madras Army, which he entered in 1842. He was employed in the suppression of Thugee. He wrote the Task of To-Day, 1852, and a.s.sisted the Reasoner, both with pen and purse, writing over the signature "Undecimus." He contemplated selling his commission to devote himself to Freethought propaganda, but by the advice of his friends was deterred. He returned to India at the Mutiny. In January, 1861, he became Deputy-Commissioner of Police at Madras. He retired in July, 1865, and has written many works on Indian affairs. Died 12 Sept. 1887.

Bell (William S.), b. in Allegheny city, Pennsylvania, 10 Feb. 1832. Brought up as a Methodist minister, was denounced for mixing politics with religion, and for his anti-slavery views. In 1873 he preached in the Universalist Church of New Bedford, but in Dec. '74, renounced Christianity and has since been a Freethought lecturer. He has published a little book on the French Revolution, and some pamphlets.

Bender (Wilhelm), German Rationalist, professor of theology at Bonn, b. 15 Jan. 1845, who created a sensation at the Luther centenary, 1883, by declaring that the work of the Reformation was incompleted and must be carried on by the Rationalists.

Bennett (De Robigne Mortimer), founder and editor of the New York Truthseeker, b. of poor parents, Springfield (N.Y.), 23 Dec. 1818. At the age of fifteen he joined the Shaker Society in New Lebanon. Here he stayed thirteen years and then married. Having lost faith in the Shaker creed, he went to Louisville, Kentucky, where he started a drug store. The perusal of Paine, Volney, and similar works made him a Freethinker. In 1873, his letters to a local journal in answer to some ministers having been refused, he resolved to start a paper of his own. The result was the Truthseeker, which in January, 1876 became a weekly, and has since become one of the princ.i.p.al Freethought organs in America. In 1879 he was sentenced to thirteen months' imprisonment for sending through the post a pamphlet by Ezra H. Heywood on the marriage question. A tract, ent.i.tled An Open Letter to Jesus Christ, was read in court to bias the jury. A pet.i.tion bearing 200,000 names was presented to President Hayes asking his release, but was not acceded to. Upon his release his admirers sent him for a voyage round the world. He wrote A Truthseeker's Voyage Round the World, Letters from Albany Penitentiary, Answers to Christian Questions and Arguments, two large volumes on The G.o.ds, another on the World's Sages, Infidels and Thinkers, and published his discussions with Humphrey, Mair, and Teed, and numerous tracts. He died 6 Dec. 1882.

Bentham (Jeremy), writer on ethics, jurisprudence, and political economy, b. 15 Feb. 1748. A grand uncle named Woodward was the publisher of Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation. Was educated at Westminster and Oxford, where he graduated M.A. 1767. Bentham is justly regarded as the father of the school of philosophical Radicalism. In philosophy he is the great teacher of Utilitarianism; as a jurist he did much to disclose the defects of and improve our system of law. Macaulay says he "found jurisprudence a gibberish and left it a science." His most p.r.o.nounced Freethought work was that written in conjunction with Grote, published as An a.n.a.lysis of the Influence of Natural Religion, by Philip Beauchamp, 1822. Among his numerous other works we can only mention Deontology, or the Science of Mortality, an exposition of utilitarianism; Church of Englandism and its Catechism Examined; Not Paul, but Jesus, published under the pseudonym of Gamaliel Smith. Died 6 June, 1832, leaving his body for the purposes of science.

Beranger (Jean Pierre de), celebrated French lyrical poet, b. Paris, 19 Aug. 1780. His satire on the Bourbons twice ensured for him imprisonment. He was elected to the Const.i.tuant a.s.sembly 1848. Beranger has been compared not inaptly to Burns. All his songs breathe the spirit of liberty, and several have been characterised as impious. He died 16 July, 1857.

Bergel (Joseph), Jewish Rationalist, author of Heaven and Its Wonders, Leipsic, 1881, and Mythology of the Ancient Hebrews, 1882.

Berger (Moriz), author of a work on Materialism in Conflict with Spiritualism and Idealism, Trieste, 1883.

Bergerac de (Savinien Cyrano). See Cyrano.

Bergk (Johann Adam), German philosopher, b. Hainechen, Zeitz, 27 June, 1769; became a private teacher at Leipsic and wrote many works, both under his own name and pseudonyms. He published the Art of Thinking, Leipsic, 1802, conducted the Asiatic Magazine, 1806, and wrote under the name of Frey the True Religion, "recommended to rationalists and destined for the Radical cure of supernaturalists, mystics, etc." Died Leipsic, 27 Oct. 1834.

Bergk (Theodor), German humanist, son of the above, b. Leipsic, 22 May, 1812, author of a good History of Greek Literature, 1872.

Berigardus (Claudius), or Beauregard (Claude Guillermet), French physician and philosopher, b. at Moulins about 1591. He became a professor at Pisa from 1628 till 1640, and then went to Padua. His Circulus Pisa.n.u.s, published in 1643, was considered an Atheistic work. In the form of a dialogue he exhibits the various hypotheses of the formation of the world. The work was forbidden and is very rare. His book ent.i.tled Dubitationes in Dialogum Galilaei, also brought on him a charge of scepticism. Died in 1664.

Berkenhout (Dr. John), physician and miscellaneous writer, b. 1731, the son of a Dutch merchant who settled at Leeds. In early life he had been a captain both in the Prussian and English service, and in 1765 took his M.D. degree at Leyden. He published many books on medical science, a synopsis of the natural history of Great Britain and Ireland, and several humorous pieces, anonymously. His princ.i.p.al work is ent.i.tled Biographia Literaria, a biographical history of English literature, 1777. Throughout the work he loses no opportunity of displaying his hostility to the theologians, and is loud in his praises of Voltaire. Died 3 April, 1791.

Berlioz (Louis Hector). The most original of French musical composers, b. Isere, 11 Dec. 1803. He obtained fame by his dramatic symphony of Romeo and Juliet (1839), and was made chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Among his works is one on the Infancy of Christ. In his Memoirs he relates how he scandalised Mendelssohn "by laughing at the Bible." Died Paris, 9 March, 1869.

Bernard (Claude), French physiologist, b. Saint Julien 12 July, 1813. Went to Paris 1832, studied medicine, became member of the Inst.i.tute and professor at the Museum of Natural History, wrote La Science Experimentale, and other works on physiology. Died 10 Feb. 1878, and was buried at the expense of the Republic. Paul Bert calls him the introducer of determinism in the domain of physiology.

Bernier (Abbe). See Holbach.

Bernier (Francois), French physician and traveller, b. Angers about 1625. He was a pupil of Ga.s.sendi, whose works he abridged, and he defended Descartes against the theologians. He is known as le joli philsophe. In 1654 he went to Syria and Egypt, and from thence to India, where he became physician to Aurungzebe. On his return he published an account of his travels and of the Empire of the Great Mogul, and died at Paris 22 Sept. 1688.

Bernstein (Aaron), a rationalist, b. of Jewish parents Dantzic 1812. His first work was a translation of the Song of Songs, published under the pseudonym of A. Rebenstein (1834). He devoted himself to natural science and published works on The Rotation of Planets, Humboldt and the Spirit of the Time, etc. His essay on The Origin of the Legends of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob was translated by a German lady and published by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate (1872). Died Berlin, 12 Feb. 1884.

Berquin (Louis de), French martyr, b. in Artois, 1489. Erasmus, his friend, says his great crime was openly professing hatred of the monks. In 1523 his works were ordered to be burnt, and he was commanded to abjure his heresies. Sentence of perpetual banishment was p.r.o.nounced on him on April 16, 1529. He immediately appealed to the Parliament. His appeal was heard and rejected on the morning of the 17th. The Parliament reformed the judgment and condemned him to be burnt alive, and the sentence was carried out on the same afternoon at the Place de la Greve. He died with great constancy and resolution.

Bert (Paul), French scientist and statesman, b. at Auxerre, 17 Oct. 1833. In Paris he studied both law and medicine, and after being Professor in the Faculty of Science at Bordeaux, he in 1869 obtained the chair of physiology in the Faculty of Science at Paris, and distinguished himself by his scientific experiments. In '70 he offered his services to the Government of National Defence, and in '72 was elected to the National a.s.sembly, where he signalised himself by his Radical opinions. Gambetta recognised his worth and made him Minister of Public Instruction, in which capacity he organised French education on a Secular basis. His First Year of Scientific Instruction is almost universally used in the French primary schools. It has been translated into English by Josephine Clayton (Madame Paul Bert). His strong anti-clerical views induced much opposition. He published several scientific and educational works and attacked The Morality of the Jesuits, '80. In '86 he was appointed French Resident Minister at Tonquin, where he died 11 Nov. '86. His body was brought over to France and given a State funeral, a pension being also accorded to his widow.

Bertani (Agostino), Italian patriot, b. 19 Oct. 1812, became a physician at Genoa, took part with Garibaldi and Mazzini, organising the ambulance services. A declared Freethinker, he was elected deputy to the Italian Parliament. Died Rome 30 April, '86.

Berti (Antonio), Italian physician, b. Venice 20 June, 1816. Author of many scientific works, member of the Venice Munic.i.p.al Council and of the Italian Senate. Died Venice 24 March, 1879.

Bertillon (Louis Adolphe), French Anthropologist and physician, b. Paris 1 April, 1821. His princ.i.p.al work is a statistical study of the French population, Paris '74. He edits in conjunction with A. Hovelacque and others, the Dictionary of the Anthropological Sciences ('83 etc.) His sons, Jacques (b. '51) and Alphonse (b. '53), prosecute similar studies.

Bertrand de Saint-Germain (Guillaume Scipion), French physician, b. Puy-en-Velay 25 Oct. 1810. Became M.D. 1840, wrote on The Original Diversity of Human Races (1847), and a materialistic work on Manifestation of Life and Intelligence through Organisation, 1848. Has also written on Descartes as a Physiologist, 1869.

Berwick (George J.) M.D., appointed surgeon to the East India Company in 1828, retired in '52. Author of Awas-i-hind, or a Voice from the Ganges; being a solution of the true source of Christianity. By an Indian Officer; London, 1861. Also of a work on The Forces of the Universe, '70. Died about 1872.

Besant (Annie) nee Wood. B. London, 1 Oct. 1847. Educated in Evangelicalism by Miss Marryat, sister of novelist, but turned to the High Church by reading Pusey and others. In "Holy Week"

of 1866 she resolved to write the story of the week from the gospel. Their contradictions startled her but she regarded her doubts as sin. In Dec. '67 she married the Rev. F. Besant, and read and wrote extensively. The torment a child underwent in whooping-cough caused doubts as to the goodness of G.o.d. A study of Greg's Creed of Christendom and Arnold's Literature and Dogma increased her scepticism. She became acquainted with the Rev. C. Voysey and Thomas Scott, for whom she wrote an Essay on the Deity of Jesus of Nazareth, "by the wife of a beneficed clergyman." This led to her husband insisting on her taking communion or leaving. She chose the latter course, taking by agreement her daughter with her. Thrown on her own resources, she wrote further tracts for Mr. Scott, reprinted in My Path to Atheism ('77). Joined the National Secular Society, and in '74 wrote in the National Reformer over the signature of "Ajax." Next year she took to the platform and being naturally eloquent soon won her way to the front rank as a Freethought lecturess, and became joint editor of the National Reformer. Some lectures on the French Revolution were republished in book form. In April, '77, she was arrested with Mr. Bradlaugh for publishing the Fruits of Philosophy. After a brilliant defence, the jury exonerated the defendants from any corrupt motives, and although they were sentenced the indictment was quashed in Feb. '78, and the case was not renewed. In May, '78, a pet.i.tion in Chancery was presented to deprive Mrs. Besant of her child on the ground of her Atheistic and Malthusian views. Sir G. Jessell granted the pet.i.tion. In '80 Mrs. Besant matriculated at the London University and took 1st B.Sc. with honors in '82. She has debated much and issued many pamphlets to be found in Theological Essays and Debates. She wrote the second part of the Freethinkers' Text Book dealing with Christian evidence; has written on the Sins of the Church, 1886, and the Evolution of Society. She has translated Jules Soury's Religion of Israel, and Jesus of the Gospels; Dr. L. Buchner on the Influence of Heredity and Mind in Animals, and from the fifteenth edition of Force and Matter. From '83 to '88 she edited Our Corner, and since '85 has given much time to Socialist propaganda, and has written many Socialist pamphlets. In Dec. '88, Mrs. Besant was elected a member of the London School Board.

Beverland (Hadria.n.u.s), Dutch cla.s.sical scholar and nephew of Isaac Vossius, b. Middleburg 1654. He took the degree of doctor of law and became an advocate, but devoted himself to literature. He was at the university of Oxford in 1672. His treatise on Original Sin, Peccatum Originale (Eleutheropoli, 1678), in which he contends that the sin of Adam and Eve was s.e.xual inclination, caused a great outcry. It was burnt, Beverland was imprisoned and his name struck from the rolls of Leyden University. He wrote some other curious works and died about 1712.

Bevington (Louisa S.), afterwards Guggenberger; English poetess and auth.o.r.ess of Key Notes, 1879; Poems, Lyrics and Sonnets, '82; wrote "Modern Atheism and Mr. Mallock" in the Nineteenth Century (Oct. and Dec. '79), and on "The Moral Demerits of Orthodoxy" in Progress, Sept. '84.

Beyle (Marie Henri), French man of letters, famous under the name of de Stendhal, b. Gren.o.ble, 23 Jan. 1783. Painter, soldier, merchant and consul, he travelled largely, a wandering life being congenial to his broad and sceptical spirit. His book, De l'Amour is his most notable work. He was an original and gifted critic and romancer. Balzac esteemed him highly. He died at Paris, 23 March, 1842. Prosper Merimee has published his correspondence. One of his sayings was "Ce qui excuse Dieu, c'est qu'il n'existe pas"--G.o.d's excuse is that he does not exist.

Bianchi (Angelo), known as Bianchi-Giovini (Aurelio) Italian man of letters, b. of poor parents at Como, 25 Nov. 1799. He conducted several papers in various parts of Piedmont and Switzerland. His Life of Father Paoli Sarpi, 1836, was put on the Index, and thenceforward he was in constant strife with the Roman Church. For his attacks on the clergy in Il Republicano, at Lugano, he was proscribed, and had to seek refuge at Zurich, 1839. He went thence to Milan and there wrote a History of the Hebrews, a monograph on Pope Joan, and an account of the Revolution. His princ.i.p.al works are the History of the Popes until the great schism of the West (Turin, 1850-64) and a Criticism of the Gospels, 1853, which has gone through several editions. Died 16 May, 1862.

Biandrata or Blandrata (Giorgio), Italian anti-trinitarian reformer, b. Saluzzo about 1515. Graduated in arts and medicine at Montpellier, 1533. He was thrown into the prison of the Inquisition at Pavia, but contrived to escape to Geneva, where he become obnoxious to Calvin. He left Geneva in 1558 and went to Poland where he became a leader of the Socinian party. He was a.s.sa.s.sinated 1591.

Bichat (Marie Francois Xavier), a famous French anatomist and physiologist, b. Thoirette (Jura), 11 Nov. 1771. His work on the Physiology of Life and Death was translated into English. He died a martyr to his zeal for science, 22 July, 1802.

Biddle or Bidle (John), called the father of English Unitarianism, b. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire, 14 Jan. 1615. He took his M.A. degree at Oxford, 1641, and became master of the Gloucester Grammar School, but lost the situation for denying the Trinity. He was also imprisoned there for some time, and afterwards cited at Westminster. He appealed to the public in defence, and his pamphlet was ordered to be burnt by the hangman, 6 Sept. 1647. He was detained in prison till 1652, after which he published several pamphlets, and was again imprisoned in 1654. In Oct. 1655, Cromwell banished him to the Scilly Isles, making him an allowance. He returned to London 1658, but after the publication of the Acts of Uniformity was again seized, and died in prison 22 Sept. 1662.

Bierce (M. H.) see Grile (Dod).

Billaud-Varenne (Jean Nicolas), French conventionalist b. La Roch.e.l.le, 23 April, 1756. About 1785 became advocate to Parliament; denounced the government and clergy 1789. Proposed abolition of the monarchy 1 July, 1791, and wrote Elements of Republicanism, 1793. Withdrew from Robespierre after the feast of the Supreme Being, saying "Thou beginnest to sicken me with thy Supreme Being." Was exiled 1 April, 1795, and died at St. Domingo, 3 June, 1819.

Bion, of Borysthenes, near the mouth of the Dneiper. A Scythian philosopher who flourished about 250 B.C. He was sold as a slave to a rhetorician, who afterwards gave him freedom and made him his heir. Upon this he went to Athens and applied himself to the study of philosophy. He had several teachers, but attached himself to Theodorus the Atheist. He was famous for his knowledge of music, poetry, and philosophy. Some shrewd sayings of his are preserved, as that "only the votive tablets of the preserved are seen in the temples, not those of the drowned" and "it is useless to tear our hair when in grief since sorrow is not cured by baldness."

Birch (William John), English Freethinker, b. London 4 Jan. 1811. Educated at Baliol College, Oxford, graduated M.A. at New Inn Hall. Author of An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion of Shakespeare, 1848; An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion of the Bible, 1856; this work was translated into Dutch by "Rudolf Charles;" Paul an Idea, not a Fact; and the Real and Ideal. In the stormy time of '42 Mr. Birch did much to support the prosecuted publications. He brought out the Library of Reason and supported The Reasoner and Investigator with both pen and purse. Mr. Birch has resided much in Italy and proved himself a friend to Italian unity and Freedom. He is a member of the Italian Asiatic Society. Mr. Birch has been a contributor to Notes and Queries and other journals, and has devoted much attention to the early days of Christianity, having many ma.n.u.scripts upon the subject.

Bith.e.l.l (Richard), Agnostic, b. Lewes, Suss.e.x, 22 March 1821, of pious parents. Became teacher of mathematics and chemistry. Is Ph.D. of Gottingen and B.Sc. of London University. In '65 he entered the service of the Rothschilds. Has written Creed of a Modern Agnostic, 1883; and Agnostic Problems, 1887.

Bjornson (Bjornstjerne), Norwegian writer, b. Quickne 8 Dec. 1832. His father was a Lutheran clergyman. Has done much to create a national literature for Norway. For his freethinking opinions he was obliged to leave his country and reside in Paris. Many of his tales have been translated into English. In 1882 Bjornson published at Christiania, with a short introduction, a resume of C. B. Waite's History of the Christian Religion, under the t.i.tle of Whence come the Miracles of the New Testament? This was the first attack upon dogmatic Christianity published in Norway, and created much discussion. The following year he published a translation of Colonel Ingersoll's article in the North American Review upon the "Christian Religion," with a long preface, in which he attacks the State Church and Monarchy. The translation was ent.i.tled Think for Yourself. The first edition rapidly sold out and a second one appeared. He has since, both in speech and writing, repeatedly avowed his Freethought, and has had several controversies with the clergy.

Blagosvyetlov (Grigorevich E.), Russian author, b. in the Caucasus, 1826. Has written on Sh.e.l.ley, Buckle, and Mill, whose Subjection of Women he translated into Russian. He edited a magazine Djelo (Cause). Died about 1885.

Blanqui (Louis Auguste), French politician, b. near Nice, 7 Feb. 1805, a younger brother of Jerome Adolphe Blanqui, the economist. Becoming a Communist, his life was spent in conspiracy and imprisonment under successive governments. In '39 he was condemned to death, but his sentence commuted to imprisonment for life, and was subject to brutal treatment till the revolution of '48 set him at liberty. He was soon again imprisoned. In '65 he wrote some remarkable articles on Monotheism in Le Candide. After the revolution of 4 Sept. '70, Blanqui demanded the suppression of worship. He was again imprisoned, but was liberated and elected member of the Commune, and arrested by Thiers. In his last imprisonment he wrote a curious book, Eternity and the Stars, in which he argues from the eternity and infinity of matter. Died Paris, 31 Dec. 1880. Blanqui took as his motto "Ni Dieu ni maitre"--Neither G.o.d nor master.

Blasche (Bernhard Heinrich), German Pantheist, b. Jena 9 April, 1776. His father was a professor of theology and philosophy. He wrote Kritik des Modernen Geisterglaubens (Criticism of Modern Ghost Belief), Philosophische Unsterblichkeitslehre (Teaching of Philosophical Immortality), and other works. Died near Gotha 26 Nov. 1832.

Blignieres (Celestin de), French Positivist, of the Polytechnic school. Has written a popular exposition of Positive philosophy and religion, Paris 1857; The Positive Doctrine, 1867; Studies of Positive Morality, 1868; and other works.

Blind (Karl), German Republican, b. Mannheim, 4 Sept. 1826. Studied at Heidelberg and Bonn. In 1848 he became a revolutionary leader among the students and populace, was wounded at Frankfort, and proscribed. In Sept. '48 he led the second republican revolution in the Black Forest. He was made prisoner and sentenced to eight year's imprisonment. In the spring of '49 he was liberated by the people breaking open his prison. Being sent on a mission to Louis Napoleon, then president of the French Republic at Paris, he was arrested and banished from France. He went to Brussels, but since '52 has lived in in England, where he has written largely on politics, history, and mythology. His daughter Mathilde, b. at Mannheim, opened her literary career by publishing a volume of poems in 1867 under the name of Claude Lake. She has since translated Straus's Old Faith and the New, and written the volumes on George Eliot and Madame Roland in the Eminent Women series.